Index
- Early Russia, the Mongol Invasions
and the Rise of the Romanovs
- The Romanovs
- The Road to Revolution: the Decembrist
Revolt, 1905 and 1917
- World War I and Lenin
- Post-Lenin: Stalin, Purges, Gulags
and Collectivization
- World War II
- Khrushchev, Brezhnev, Gorbachev and
the Post-Soviet Era
- Post-Soviet Era Economics
- Ethnic Conflicts
- REFERENCES
Russian history is rich and fascinating, a story of
intrigue, political revolution, misery, beauty and violence.
Early Russia, the Mongol Invasions
and the Rise of the Romanovs
Early Russia was a loose collection of nomadic peoples
and ancient kingdoms that gradually coalesced into cities
and finally an empire (History & Culture of Russia,
2005). In the early 9th Century the Varangians, a Scandinavian
people led by a warrior named Rurik, crossed into Eastern
Europe and in 862 came to the city of Novgorod (History,
2005). It's not known whether Rurik captured the city
or was invited to become its ruler, but it is known
that he and his people settled there (History &
Culture of Russia, 2005).
Rurik was succeeded by Oleg, who "extended the
power of the city southward" until in 882, he "gained
control of Kiev," a city on the Dnepr River (History,
2005). When Oleg took over Kiev, it was the first time
that there was a "unified, dynastic state in the
region" (History, 2005). The empire that rose with
Kiev as its center lasted for 300 years and was known
as Kievan Rus' (History, 2005).
By 989 this kingdom, ruled by Vladimir, stretched all
the way to the Black Sea (History, 2005). Yaroslav the
Wise succeeded Vladimir, and under his rule Kievan Rus'
reached its height (History, 2005). He codified the
laws, allied with other states, encouraged artistic
pursuits; however, he made a fatal mistake and divided
"his kingdom among his children" (History,
2005). Yaroslav's offspring began to fight one another
and the empire broke up into "regional power centers"
(History, 2005).
In 1147, a regional price held "a feast at his
hunting lodge atop a hill overlooking the convergence
of the Moskva and Neglina Rivers" (History, 2005).
A chronicler mentioned the small settlement located
at the rivers' confluence, giving us the earliest mention
we have of what will grow to become the preeminent city
in all Russia: Moscow (History, 2005).
The Kievan Rus' existed until the 13th Century, but
was destroyed when the Mongols invaded (History, 2005).
The invasion was led by Batu Khan, grandson of Jenghiz
Kahn, who destroyed all the major Kievan Rus' cities
with the exceptions of Pskov and Novgorod (History,
2005). He didn't depose the regional princes, but forced
them to pay tribute (History, 2005). Other powers attempted
to invade Russia at this same time but were defeated
by the great warrior Alexander Nevsky (History, 2005).
For the next 100 years, Russia seems to have stagnated,
but then in 1380, Dmitri Donskoy, a Muscovite prince,
felt strong enough to challenge the Tatars, and won
a decisive victory at Kulikovo Field (History, 2005).
However, the Tatars retaliated two years later, and
regained their hold over the city (History, 2005). Finally
in 1480, Moscow's legendary ruler Grand Duke Ivan III
(known as Ivan the Great) was able to defeat the Tatars
for good (History, 2005). He effectively controlled
most of the country, but it is his grandson, Ivan IV,
known as Ivan the Terrible, who finally unified all
of Russia (History, 2005).
Ivan succeeded to power at age 3, becoming Grand Duke
of Moscow after his father Vasily III (History, 2005).
His mother died when Ivan was eight, and until he was
16, Ivan had a series of regents protecting him (History,
2005). In 1547, presumably having had enough both of
boyar domination and Tatar rule, Ivan adopted the title
of "tsar", reorganized the military, crushed
the boyars, and conquered Kazan, thus destroying "any
lingering Tatar influence" (History, 2005).
Ivan the Terrible died in 1584 and his son Fyodor succeeded
him, but proved unable to rule the newly-united country,
leaving most of the management of Russia to his brother-in-law,
Boris Godunov (History, 2005). Not surprisingly, Boris
began to try to secure the succession for himself; he
murdered Fyodor's younger brother Dmitri and when Fyodor
died, Godunov was in fact made tsar (History, 2005).
However, he was never completely accepted, and a young
man claiming to be Dmitri came out of Poland and invaded
Russia in 1604; when Godunov died suddenly the following
year, the "Time of Troubles" began (History,
2005). In 1613, after eight years of struggle and bloodshed,
the boyars succeeded in ousting the Poles from Moscow;
that year they elected Michael Romanov as Tsar, ushering
in the dynasty that would rule Russia for the next 300
years (History, 2005).
The Romanovs
The Romanovs, at first, did little to modernize Russia
and as a result, Russian society fell further and further
behind, and came to be seen as backward and barbaric
(History, 2005). A Romanov tsar named Peter, who would
become known as Peter the Great, decided to change that.
Peter's road to the throne was tortuous and difficult.
When he did take the throne in 1695, he did something
amazing: rather than take up residence in Moscow and
begin his reign, he went to Europe to learn about Western
advancements (History, 2005). He not only met monarchs
and worked through diplomatic channels, he also traveled
incognito and even worked in Holland as a ship's carpenter
(History, 2005). During this period, he "amassed
… considerable … knowledge on western European
industrial techniques and state administration, and
became determined to modernize the Russian state and
to westernize its society" (History, 2005).
Peter's reforms "hit the country like a hurricane,"
and included such things as establishing technical schools,
changing the calendar, and moving the capital of Russia
from Moscow to a new city that he planned to build:
St. Petersburg. (History, 2005). Peter's reforms were
nothing if not controversial, and generated a great
deal of opposition, both from the nobility and the conservative
clergy; and from his son Alexis (History, 2005). Intrigues
soon began to build around the boy, but he appears to
have had no desire for the throne, and in 1716 he "fled
to Vienna after renouncing his right to the succession"
(History, 2005). Peter, who was suspicious of most people's
motives, began to believe that Alexis had not left Russia
for safety, but to gather support for an attempt to
take the throne (History, 2005). Peter persuaded Alexis
to return to Russia; when the young man did so, Peter
had him arrested, tried for treason, and sentenced to
death (History, 2005). Alexis died from the effects
of torture before the sentence could be carried out
(History, 2005).
Peter died in 1725, and "remains one of the most
controversial figures in Russian history" (History,
2005). While there is no question of his commitment
to modernizing Russia and making it a member of the
European community, a question does arise as to the
effectiveness of his reforms, many of which were "financed
at the expense of the peasantry, who were increasingly
forced into serfdom" (History, 2005).
After Peter's death Russia had a number of rulers "in
a distressingly short time" (History, 2005). Many
of his reforms failed to last, and it wasn't until the
reign of another towering figure, Catherine the Great,
that Russia finally became a great European power (History,
2005).
Catherine became the "most powerful sovereign
in Europe," and continued Peter the Great's reforms;
her diplomatic skills enabled her to increase Russia's
influence in European affairs, and she was also able
to increase Russia's territory in Central and Eastern
Europe (History, 2005). She espoused progressive reforms,
supported the arts, founded the Hermitage Museum, and
corresponded with some of the great figures of the Enlightenment
(History, 2005).
However, Catherine became "strikingly conservative"
with the onset of the French Revolution and "reversed
many of the liberal reforms of her early reign"
(History, 2005). One of the effects of this reversal
was to contribute to the increasingly miserable condition
of the peasants in Russia (History, 2005). Catherine
died in 1796, and was succeeded by Paul I; who was succeeded
only five years later by his son Alexander I, whose
main claim to fame appears to be that he was Tsar when
Napoleon invaded Russia (History, 2005).
In 1812, almost all of Europe was under Napoleon's
control, but that wasn't enough: he wanted to force
the tsar to accept a treaty Napoleon had forced on him
several years before (History, 2005). Napoleon marched
into Russia at the head of the largest army ever seen
(History, 2005). The Russian military leader, Marshal
Kutuzov, knew that he couldn’t defeat the French
in a pitched battle, so he used a defensive strategy:
he fell back before the advancing troops, burning the
ground as he went and forcing the French to continually
extend their supply lines (History, 2005).
However, by sheer numbers, the French would have been
able to take Moscow, so the tsar ordered Kutuzov to
fight a decisive battle, which took place on September
7 at Borodino Field (History, 2005). The engagement
was indecisive, and Kutuzov withdrew; with the army
gone, the citizens of Moscow evacuated their homes,
leaving the city to the French (History, 2005). However,
the city was empty: the Muscovites had taken their supplies
with them, and when fires broke out that night, they
destroyed what shelter the occupying army might have
found (History, 2005). Thus the French army was stranded
in a deserted city, without food or shelter, facing
the coming Russian winter (History, 2005).
Napoleon waited for Alexander to negotiate, but the
tsar did no such thing, which forced the French to begin
the long march home (History, 2005). Because the Russian
army blocked the easier route, the French had to go
home the same way they had come in, along a route that
was now scorched and offered no food or shelter (History,
2005). The French army was exhausted and starving, and
since they had waited until mid-October to being the
retreat, they were caught in the middle of one of the
worst winters ever recorded (History, 2005). Of the
half-million soldiers who started the campaign, only
10,000 survived, and the debacle "ensured Napoleon's
downfall and Russia's status as a leading power in post-Napoleonic
Europe" (History, 2005). Despite this great success,
tensions inside Russia began to increase (History, 2005).
The Road to Revolution: the
Decembrist Revolt, 1905 and 1917
The roots of the revolutions in Russia lie in the
misery of the serfs. Throughout history, the tsars had
consolidated power in their own hands by taking it away
from the nobles (History, 2005). They did this either
by simply taking it and facing the nobles' opposition,
or by "compensating the nobles for decreased power
in government by giving them greater power over their
land and its occupants" (History, 2005). Under
this system the serfs had been reduced to something
very like slavery (History, 2005).
Unrest within the country grew, and in December 1825,
the Decembrist Revolt broke out (The Russian Revolution).
Supporters of the Decembrist Revolt included members
of the intelligentsia (including army officers), liberals
and "some members of the tiny middle class"
(The Russian Revolution). Tsar Nicholas I "brutally
suppressed" the uprising, which has to be judged
a failure (The Russian Revolution).
Nearly 40 years later, Tsar Alexander II did in fact
emancipate the serfs, but his act did not materially
affect their lives, since "they were forced to
pay onerous exemption dues to their village commune
so that the nobility could be reimbursed for their land
by the government" (The Russian Revolution). In
fact, most of Russia was as it had been for centuries
(The Russian Revolution). Then in 1904, Tsar Nicholas,
reacting to a Japanese attack on Russian navy vessels
in Port Arthur, declared war on Japan (The Russian Revolution).
The struggle lasted for a year, and ended in 1905 in
a Japanese victory over the humiliated Russian military;
the conflict put further strain on the Russian economy
(The Russian Revolution).
With such conditions prevailing, it's no wonder that
ideas such as "anarchism and Marxism were taking
root against the autocratic government" (The Russian
Revolution). In 1905, approximately 100,000 workers
marched to Tsar Nicholas's palace to demand higher wages
and better working conditions (The Russian Revolution).
Panicked, the palace guards fired point blank into the
unarmed crowd, killing approximately 100 demonstrators
(The Russian Revolution). The event came to be known
as "Bloody Sunday" and it signaled the second
revolutionary event: the Revolution of 1905 (The Russian
Revolution).
The Russian Revolution of 1905 had no single cause or
purpose, and is seen mainly as an indicator of the extent
of the unrest in the country, as well as a precursor
to the much larger revolution in 1917 (Russian Revolution
of 1905, 2005). The event sparked many other groups
that had been quiet to engage in active protest; the
unrest lasted until well in 1908 (Russian Revolution
of 1905). However, in the end the 1905 uprising accomplished
little: In essence the country was unchanged, political
power remained with the tsar, wealth and land with the
nobility, society was unchanged. The introduction of
the Duma and the clamp-down did, however, successfully
disrupt the revolutionary groups. … [the] radicals
[were] disorganized until the stimulus of World War
I (Russian Revolution of 1905, 2005)
When WWI broke out, Russia sent nearly 15 million
troops into the conflict, half of whom were killed (The
Russian Revolution). The troops suffered harsh punishment
and had poor leaders, and although initially in favor
of the war, soon grew discontented; there was "a
growing sense of injustice among the troops" (The
Russian Revolution). Things came to a head in 1917.
The war had caused food shortages and severe inflation,
and there were demonstrations over the shortages as
well as the high prices; soldiers ordered to fire on
the protestors joined them instead and a few days later,
in March 1917, the tsar abdicated, bringing the Romanov
dynasty, and the tsarist form of government, to an end
(The Russian Revolution).
World War I and Lenin
World War I gave Lenin and the Bolsheviks the chance
they wanted. Vladimir Ilyich Lenin had been active in
revolutionary politics since his elder brother was hanged
for allegedly plotting to overthrow the tsar (Vladimir
Lenin, 2005). He lived in Finland for security reasons,
but returned to Russia after the overthrow of Tsar Nicholas
(Vladimir Lenin, 2005). He urged the Bolsheviks not
to participate in the Provisional Government; instead
he rallied the people to his side with calls for "peace,
land, bread, and power to the worker's soviets"
(The Russian Revolution). In the fall of 1917, the government
toppled and Lenin established communist rule in Russia
(The Russian Revolution). The first years after the
Revolution appear to have been relatively prosperous,
as Lenin decided a partial return to a market economy,
which he called his New Economic Policy or NEP, would
help the nation recover from both WWI and the Revolution
(History, 2005). At this point, there was a "widespread
sense of optimism and opportunity" (History, 2005).
Post-Lenin: Stalin, Purges,
Gulags and Collectivization
Lenin died in 1924 after a series of strokes, and his
death heralded a long and bitter power struggle within
the Communist Party (History, 2005). Joseph Stalin emerged
as the victor, and as one of the most ruthless dictators
in history. He scrapped many of Lenin's plans, particularly
the NEP, and replaced it with plans that were instituted
from the top; he was in fact the architect of agricultural
collectivization, in which huge, state-run farms were
set up (History, 2005). He repressed religion violently
and closed churches, destroyed them or "converted
them to other uses" (History, 2005).
In order to remain secure and to stifle all opposition
to his rule, Stalin ruthlessly purged the ranks of his
own party of all those who might oppose him; he also
purged those who opposed his policies (History, 2005).
People vanished in the middle of the night, into the
various camps known as the "gulag," or they
were simply killed (History, 2005). "By the end
of the 1930's, the Soviet Union had become a country
in which life was more strictly regulated than ever
before " (History, 2005).
In 1929, Stalin instituted his policies supporting forced
collectivism, a process that led to an artificially
induced famine in the Ukraine, where peasant farms dominated
in agricultural production (Ukraine Famine, 1996). In
1932, Stalin increased the procurement quotes that were
imposed on grain production in the Ukraine in an effort
to support his industrial development (Ukraine Famine,
1996). As a result, the collective peasant farms of
the Ukraine could not keep their own grains until the
government's quotas were met, leaving many farmers starving
in the fields.
No man, woman or child could take even the smallest
amount of grain until the government quotas were met,
and many starving people were executed for trying (Ukraine
Famine, 1996). Between 1932 and 1933, it was estimated
that between six and seven million people died as a
result of the famine or as a result of the actions of
the government to protect the collective ideology (Ukraine
Famine, 1996). Whether the result of starvation or purging,
Stalin's directive to ensure participation in the collective
was an evident part of his leadership. Stalin understood
what he was doing when he put these quotas in place;
not only was he determining a way to put the peasantry
"in their place," but he was also crushing
"all vestiges of Ukrainian nationalism" (Ukraine
Famine, 1996). By the end of 1933, Stalin had successfully
weeded out many of the Ukrainian farming leaders, and
set the tone to reflect a "no-nonsense" approach
to participation in the collective process.
During this same period of time, the government under
Stalin became concerned with any vestiges of independent
thought or action. In fact, Stalin believed that the
intelligentsia posed a direct threat to the imposed
industrialization, and challenged some of the basic
principles of Communism. During the 1930’s Stalin
imposed the "show trials," during which time
former Soviet leaders, Russian and foreign engineers
and technical specialists were put on trial and convicted
of crimes against the state (The Purge). The end result
was that many of these leaders were executed simply
because they were perceived to be a threat to Stalin’s
power. The country became a huge prison camp with people
encouraged to inform upon each other. Millions were
executed or imprisoned for “crimes” such
as being suspected of being a foreign agent or saboteur
or being involved in a plot against that state. Slave
labor was used in a number of industrial projects and
this is probably a reason for the economic growth achieved
during this time. It has been estimated that overall
perhaps 20,000,000 Soviet citizens died due to the crimes
of Stalin and his henchmen, including Lavrentii Beria
(head of the notorious KGB).
In August of 1939, as international aggressions rose,
Germany and the Soviet Union signed a non-aggressive
pact called the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact (The Hitler-Stalin
Pact, 2004). This cynical pact was a major surprise
to many of the leaders of the modern world, who recognized
the ideological differences that existed between Hitler's
world and Stalin's (Hitler-Stalin Pact, 2004). The pact
not only defined protocols for non-violent interactions
between Germany and the Soviet Union, but also included
a secret appendix that defined the partitioning of Eastern
Europe between German and the Soviet Union. Including
in this secret appendix was to give Stalin control over
Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Bessarabia,
while also creating provision for the dividing of Poland
along the rivers Narev, San and Vistula (Hitler-Stalin
Pact, 2004). Just one week after the pact was signed,
Hitler would invade Poland, sparking the onset of World
War II.
World War II
Nazi Germany had only entered into the pact to give
itself time to digest the parts of Northern, Central
and Western Europe that it had designs upon. Hitler
always intended to attack the Slavs in the east as a
means to achieve Lebensraum (or living space) for the
German people. The Soviet Union, however, was unprepared
for World War II; the constant political purges had
cost it many of its experienced military leaders, and
Soviet industry was slow to get onto a war footing (History,
2005). When Hitler invaded the Soviet Union in 1941,
they were caught by surprise (History, 2005). However,
despite the fact that the German army was much better
trained and equipped, the Russians were able to launch
a counter-offensive that kept the Germans from capturing
Moscow (History, 2005). In 1942, the Germans launched
an offensive against Stalingrad in an attempt to capture
the oil fields in the Caucasus, but again failed to
achieve their objective (History, 2005). In addition,
another terrible Russian winter took its toll on the
German soldiers, and the Russians managed to surround
the entire German force at Stalingrad and force it to
surrender (History, 2005). The loss of an entire German
Army in the East was a huge blow to Germany, and marked
"a decisive turning point in the war" (History,
2005).
Even so, the war would take a terrible toll on Russia
and the Soviet Union. During the war, over 26 million
Soviet citizens died from all causes, including battle
injuries, attacks on civilians, starvation and illnesses
(some of which were related to issues of poverty, and
a lack of medical care) (Pearson Education, 2000). In
comparison the United States suffered about 291,000
casualties.
Surprisingly, the Soviet Union emerged from the war
stronger than it was before the conflict; in fact, it
ranked alongside the United States as one of the only
two superpowers in the world (History, 2005). However,
life was still hard for the average Russian, since industrial
production was "concentrated on heavy industry,"
there were agricultural failures that led to widespread
famine, "political freedoms were restricted even
further, and another huge wave of purges was carried
out" (History, 2005). Then, the Cold War got underway,
and the country was strained even further, since much
of its resources went into military projects, not into
helping the people (History, 2005). Stalin died in 1953,
leaving great uncertainty about the country's future.
Khrushchev, Brezhnev, Gorbachev
and the Post-Soviet Era
Many of the repressive policies he'd put in place
were dismantled almost immediately upon Stalin's death,
and leadership passed to Nikita Khrushchev (History,
2005). Khruschev gave a famous speech denouncing Stalin
at the 20th Congress of the Communist Party. However,
party "hard liners" began to object to Khrushchev's
less repressive leadership, and opposition to him "gradually
gained strength within the party" until he was
ousted in 1964 (History, 2005).
Perhaps the most notable issue under the reign of Khrushchev
was the Cuban Missile Crisis. Some argue that this is
the closest the world has ever come to nuclear annihilation
(14 Days, 1997). Communications between Khrushchev and
U.S. President John F. Kennedy defined a period of increased
tension and political posturing that almost led to nuclear
war.
More specifically, President Kennedy and Premier Khrushchev
had been communicating by way of letters during a point
in history that had the potential for dramatic outcomes.
On October 27, 1962, President Kennedy received a lengthy
proposal from Khrushchev, outlining the perspective
and creating a call for an agreement between the two
world leaders. But this letter argued that the USSR
would remove their missiles from Cuban only if President
Kennedy would make a public statement and assure the
world that he would never invade Cuba. Just one day
later, President Kennedy received word that the Cuban
military had shot down a U-2 fighter. When Kennedy received
a second letter from Khrushchev outlining a much more
complicated plan, Robert Kennedy suggested that Kennedy
simply focus on the first letter, on a letter that was
designed to support a faster resolution, and ignore
receipt of the second letter.
Krushchev was succeeded by Leonid Brezhnev, whose
tenure was "marked by a determined emphasis on
domestic stability and an aggressive foreign policy"
(History, 2005). However, his polices led to "a
decade-long period of stagnation" for the nation,
during which time "its rigid economy slowly [deteriorated]
and its political climate [became] increasingly pessimistic"
(History, 2005). Brezhnev died in 1982, and in 1985,
Mikhail Gorbachev came to power.
It was Gorbachev's aim to revitalize the economy by
"loosening up a bit on social control " (History,
2005). When the Chernobyl nuclear reactor in Ukraine
exploded and the Soviets covered it up, people began
to question Gorbachev's sincerity in wanting a more
open society. (History, 2005). His response was to remove
all controls on reporting, and for the first time free
and open discussions of the country's massive problems
(poverty, corruption, the unpopular war in Afghanistan)
took place (History, 2005). New reform leaders like
Boris Yeltsin emerged, and dissidents like Andrei Sakharov
were able to openly express their views; and finally,
in 1989, the country held its first open elections since
1917 (History, 2005).
The communist satellite states of Eastern Europe fell
in a series of revolutions culminating in the fall of
the Berlin Wall; and then in 1990 the Soviet Union itself
fell apart, dissolving into independent constituent
republics (History, 2005). Previous to this,internal
problems mounted; there were large-scale strikes and
anti-party demonstrations; the economy got worse, food
grew short, and the crime rate soared; Gorbachev failed
to solve any of these problems (History, 2005). In 1990,
Boris Yeltsin was elected President of the Supreme Soviet
of Russia. However, there was a coup attempted by Soviet
hard-liners against Gorbachev and he was detained under
house arrest. Military units sent to back up the coup
were met by an overwhelming popular protest led by Yeltsin
and the presidents of the other republics (History,
2005). In the end: "Gorbachev was reinstated, only
to realize that his position had become completely obsolete.
By the end of the year the Soviet Union had been voted
out of existence, to be replaced by a Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS). On December 25, Gorbachev
resigned, and on midnight of December 31, the Soviet
flag atop the Kremlin was replaced by the Russian tricolour"
(History, 2005).
Post-Soviet Era Economics
Russia today is struggling to move from the "strict
social, political and economic controls of the Communist
period," to a free-market economy, and it's having
a very hard time doing so (Russia, 2005). The uncertainties
have led to a marked rise in crime and a pronounced
pessimism on the part of many Russians and their political
leaders. While there has been progress on the economic
front, especially in Moscow and in Saint Petersburg
in recent years we have seen a "recentralization
of power under Vladimir Putin and an erosion in nascent
democratic institutions" (Russia, 2005).
Ethnic Conflicts
There were clashes between Estonian and Russian students
during the post-soviet period; rioting in Kazakstan
in 1986 when Gorbachev replaced an official there with
a Russian; and demonstrations in Georgia in 1987 in
which more than 20 people died (Ethnic conflicts, 2005).
Ethnic violence was common in the Soviet Union; between
Uzbeks and Turks in Uzbekistan; in Moldavia when Gagauz
separatists tried to declare independence in 1990; and
between ethnic Romanian Moldavians and Russians at the
same time (Ethnic conflicts, 2005). The list goes on,
and today a guerrilla war is being waged in Chechnya,
a war that has already cost many lives.
REFERENCES
Ethnic Conflicts. (2005). Retrieved March 20, 2005 from
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/russia1.htm
14 Days in October (1997). Retrieved March 23, 2005
from: http://library.thinkquest.org/11046/
The Hitler-Stalin Pact is signed. (2004, August 24).
Retrieved March 20, 2005 from: http://militaryhistory.about.com/b/a/107250.htm
History & Culture of Russia. (2005). Retrieved
March 20, 2005 from http://www.geographia.com/russia/rushis01.htm
Pearson Education (2000). Casualties of World War II.
Retrieved March 20, 2005 from: http://a.tribalfusion.com
The Purge. (n.d.). Retrieved March 20, 2005 from: http://mars.acnet.wnec.edu
Russia. (2005). Retrieved March 20, 2005 from http://www.cia.gov
The Russian Revolution. (n.d.) Retrieved March 20, 2005
from http://www.stedwards.edu
Russian Revolution of 1905. (2005). Retrieved March
20, 2005 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1905
Ukraine Famine. (1996). Retrieved March 20, 2005 from:
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/ukra.html
Vladimir Lenin. (2005). Retrieved March 20, 2005 from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenin
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